911:Plasma cosmos

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[edit] Intro

(todo)

[edit] Energy physics

Visible spectrum (or "optical spectrum")

musical notes, colors and frequencies [1]

musical notes and colors [2]

  • A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity - the electromagnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. electric current. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets.
  • There are three distinctly different steady state modes in which a plasma can operate [41]:
    • Dark Current Mode - The strength of the electrical current (flow of charged particles) within the plasma is very low. The plasma does not glow. It is essentially invisible. We would not know a plasma was there at all unless we measured its electrical activity with sensitive instruments. The present day magnetospheres of the planets are examples of plasmas operating in the dark current mode.
    • Normal Glow Mode - The strength of the electrical current (flow of charged particles) is significant. The entire plasma glows. The brightness of the glow depends on the intensity of the current in the plasma. Examples: Any neon sign. Emission nebulae. The Sun's corona.
    • Arc Mode - The strength of the electrical current in the plasma is very high. The plasma radiates brilliantly over a wide spectrum. Current tends to form twisting filaments. Examples of this mode of operation are: An electric arc welding machine. Lightning. The Sun's photosphere.
  • Birkeland currents:
    • "Electric current, passing through a plasma, will take on the corkscrew (spiral) shape discovered by Birkeland. These Birkeland currents most often occur in pairs. There is a tendency for these pairs to compress between them any material (ionized or not) in the plasma. This is called the "Z-pinch" effect. The ability of Birkeland currents to accrete and compress even non-ionized material is called "Marklund convection"." [42]
    • "A Birkeland current generally refers to any electric current in a space plasma, but more specifically when charged particles in the current follow magnetic field lines (hence, Birkeland currents are also known as field-aligned currents). They are caused by the movement of a plasma perpendicular to a magnetic field. Birkeland currents often show filamentary, or twisted "rope-like" magnetic structure."

[edit] Astronomy

[edit] Astronomic terms

  • Epoch: A period in a spacetime continuum for which something of major significance (to the Universe/Galaxies/Solar system/Earth/Human species) is specified that can vary, such as the position or the orbital elements of a celestial body.
    • Great year (or "Equinoctial cycle"): "The time required for one complete cycle of the precession of the equinoxes, about 25.800 years, at the current rate the actual length is 25.765 years."
    • Golden age epoch beliefs in various cultures." [43]
    • Todo: Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, Maya calendar, Five Suns, 2012, Aeon
    • Indian Yuga epochs: Satya Yuga (or Krita Yuga), Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, Kali Yuga.
      • "According to Indian astronomy and Hindu Mythology, the world is created, destroyed and recreated every 4,320,000 years (Maha Yuga). The cycles are said to repeat like the seasons, waxing and waning within a greater time-cycle of the creation and destruction of the universe. Like Summer, Spring, Winter and Autumn, each yuga involves stages or gradual changes which the earth and the consciousness of mankind goes through as a whole. A complete yuga cycle from a high Golden Age of enlightenment to a Dark Age and back again is said to be caused by the solar system's [red: shouldn't this be the Milky Way galaxy?] motion around a central sun." [44]
      • "The Hindu texts say the four Yugas equal 4,320,000 years, or a Mahayuga. 1,000 mahayugas or 4.32 billion years equal one Kalpa. The traditional timescale of the yugas is as follows: 1. Satya Yuga: 1,728,000 years, 2. Treta Yuga: 1,296,000 years, 3. Dvapara Yuga: 864,000 years, 4. Kali Yuga: 432,000 years. Hence, Hindu scripture says the length of the yugas maintain a 4,3,2,1 ratio to each other, with the Krita or Satya lasting 4000 years (plus a 400 year transition in and out) for a total of 4800 years, the Treta equals 3000 years (plus a 300 year transition in and out) for a total of 3600 years, the Dwapara last 2000 years (plus a 200 year transition in and out) for a total of 2400 years and the Kali 1000 years (plus a 100 year transition in and out) for a total of 1200 years. All the epochs together equal 12,000 years (or divine years) in the ascending phase and 12,000 years in the descending phase. One complete cycle is said to be equal to and celestially observed as one precession of the equinox,
      • "In Buddhism, there are four different lengths of Kalpas. A regular kalpa is approximately 16 million years long, and a small kalpa is 1000 regular kalpas, or 16 billion years. Further, a medium kalpa is 320 billion years, the equivalent of 20 small kalpas. A great kalpa is 4 medium kalpas, or 1.28 trillion years." [45]
  • Orbital period: "The time taken for a given object to make one complete orbit about another object. When mentioned without further qualification in astronomy this refers to the sidereal period of an astronomical object, which is calculated with respect to the stars."
    • Sidereal period: is the time that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. This is considered to be an object's true orbital period. The word "sidereal" means "relating to the stars". It derives from the Latin sidus, meaning "star".
    • Earth sidereal year: "The time taken for the Sun to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. It is the orbital period of Earth, equal to 365.25636042 mean solar days (31,558,149.540 seconds), that is 366.25636042 earth rotations or sidereal days. The sidereal year is 20 minutes and 24 seconds longer than the tropical year (because the vernal point precesses)."
  • Syzygy: "describing the alignment of three or more celestial bodies in the same 'gravitational' system along a straight line."
    • Crescent: "In astronomy, a crescent is the shape of the lit side of a spherical body (most notably the Moon) that appears to be less than half illuminated by the Sun as seen by the viewer. Mathematically, assuming the terminator lies on a great circle, such a crescent will actually be the figure bounded by a half-ellipse and a half-circle, with the major axis of the ellipse coinciding with a diameter of the semicircle. The direction in which the "horns" (the points at the intersection of the two arcs) face indicates whether a crescent is waxing (also young, or increasing) or waning (also old, or decreasing). Eastward pointing horns (pointing to the left, as seen from the Northern hemisphere) indicate a waxing crescent, whereas westward pointing horns (pointing to the right, as seen from the Northern hemisphere) indicate a waning crescent. Note that the directions the horns point relative to the observer are reversed in the Southern hemisphere."
    • Eclipse: "An astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another."
      • Solar eclipse: "This occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured. This can only happen during a new moon, when the Sun and Moon are in conjunction as seen from the Earth. Up to four solar eclipses occur each year, but total solar eclipses are nevertheless rare at any location because during each eclipse totality exists only in the relatively tiny area of the Moon's umbra."

[edit] Technical factors of astrology

  • Astrology concepts:
    • Astrological signs
    • Astrological ages
    • Zodiac constellations: "In Indian and Western astrology, the zodiac divides the ecliptic (the apparent path of the Sun through the heavens) into twelve (while there are actually 13!) astrological signs of equal length."
  • 13 zodiac constellations:
    • Ophiuchus (also called "Serpentarius", meaning "serpent-holder". See also: snake charmer.)
      • "Of the 13 zodiacal constellations (constellations that contain the Sun during the course of the year), Ophiuchus is the [13th and] only one not counted as an astrological sign." ... "RS Ophiuchi is part of a class called recurrent novae, whose brightness increase at irregular intervals by hundreds of times in a period of just a few days. It is thought to be at the brink of becoming a type-1a supernova.". The nearby (~6.0 ly) Barnard's Star is located in the Ophiuchus constellation. See also: Occult symbolism: Brotherhood of the Snake)
      • "At present, the Sun is in Ophiuchus from November 30 to December 17."
    • Scorpius - the two stars at the tip of the tail form the scorpion's stinger and are located near the center of the Milky Way. [46]
    • Aquila
      • "The Maya stories may be the easiest to interpret, for they depict the birth of First Father from the mouth of First Mother. These are celestial events that are directly seen in the placement of the "dark rift" at Aquila that represents the mouth of Quetzalcoatl. Beyond the mouth of Quetzalcoatl is the center of the galaxy (Cosmic Womb)." [47]
    • Sagittarius
    • Serpens: (todo)

[edit] Astronomic-geodesic terms

  • Precession (and procession): "the movement of the rotational axis of a body, such as a planet, with respect to inertial space. In particular, it refers to the precession of the Earth's rotational axis, also called the precession of the equinoxes."
    • Synodic period: is the time that it takes for the object to reappear at the same point in the sky, relative to the Sun, as observed from Earth; i.e. returns to the same elongation (and planetary phase). This is the time that elapses between two successive conjunctions with the Sun and is the object's Earth-apparent orbital period. The synodic period differs from the sidereal period since Earth itself revolves around the Sun.
    • Draconitic period: is the time that elapses between two passages of the object at its ascending node, the point of its orbit where it crosses the ecliptic from the southern to the northern hemisphere. It differs from the sidereal period because the object's line of nodes typically precesses or recesses slowly.
    • Anomalistic period: is the time that elapses between two passages of the object at its Apsis (or "Perihelion"), the point of its closest approach to the Sun. It differs from the sidereal period because the object's semimajor axis typically precesses or recesses slowly.
    • Tropical period: is the time that elapses between two passages of the object at right ascension zero. It is slightly shorter than the sidereal period because the vernal point precesses.
      • Tropical year: "the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to summer solstice."
  • Equatorial coordinate system
    • Celestial sphere: "An imaginary rotating sphere of "gigantic radius", concentric and coaxial with the Earth. All objects in the sky can be thought of as lying upon the sphere. Projected from their corresponding geographic equivalents are the celestial equator and the celestial poles. The celestial sphere projection is a very practical tool for positional astronomy."
  • Diurnal motion: "An astronomical term referring to the apparent daily motion of stars around the Earth, or more precisely around the two celestial poles. It is caused by the Earth's rotation on its axis, so every star apparently moves on a circle, that is called the diurnal circle. The time for one complete rotation is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds (1 sidereal day)."
  • Parallax: "The 'apparent motion' of an object against a distant background due to a perspective shift by the observer" ... "By observing parallax, measuring angles and using geometry, one can determine the distance to various objects. When the object in question is a star, the effect is known as stellar parallax." ... "The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus difficult to measure."

[edit] Plasma cosmology

  • Plasmas are by far the most common phase of matter in the universe, both by mass and by volume. It is often stated that more than 99% of the universe is plasma. (See e.g.: D. A. Gurnett, A. Bhattacharjee, Introduction to Plasma Physics). Essentially all of the visible light from space comes from stars, which are plasmas with a temperature such that they radiate strongly at visible wavelengths. Most of the ordinary (or baryonic) matter in the universe, however, is found in the intergalactic medium, which is also a plasma, but much hotter, so that it radiates primarily as x-rays. All the stars are made of plasma, and even the space between the stars is filled with a plasma, albeit a very sparse one (See astrophysical plasma, interstellar medium and intergalactic space). [48]
  • "Plasma cosmology shows that stars are born in a galactic electrical discharge event involving the powerful electromagnetic “Z-pinch” effect. Gravity can be ignored. Companion stars and gas giant planets are born later as the Z-pinch subsides and the new stars adjust to their changing electrical environment by expelling matter from their cores. That explains the apparent anomaly of "hot Jupiters" found closely orbiting nearby stars. Sometime later again, in achieving orbital stability through electrical encounters with other planetary bodies, gas giants may expel matter from within to form companion moons and rings. Some of that matter escapes the parent to form planetary, asteroidal, cometary and meteoroidal bodies." - Wallace Thornhill
  • "Since Charles E. R. Bruce, and following the pioneering work of Hannes Alfven on an electric circuit model of stars, it has become clear to plasma cosmologists that the electrical z-pinch effect is instrumental in forming stars. Once formed, stars continue to be lit by electrical power delivered throughout the universe by cosmic transmission lines known as Birkeland current filaments. These giant filaments can be traced by their radio transmissions. Stars also trace the Birkeland currents in galaxies in the same way that electric streetlights trace the routes of electrical cables. Stars are an electrical, not a thermonuclear, phenomenon. Consequently, a star's size, color and spectrum tell us nothing about its age. A red supergiant star is huge because it is under low electrical stress. It is not at the end of its life. And being under low stress it is not expected to explode. However, a blue star is under extreme electrical stress." ... "This discovery of the electrical nature of supernovae has implications back here on Earth. ... Our ancestors witnessed a cosmic electrical discharge up close. It raises fundamental issues about the recent history of the Earth and its cargo of life. The explosion in new understanding will be an intellectual and cultural supernova!" [49]

[edit] Super energy patterns

  • To research:
    • Binary star creation (star breakup to achieve energetic stability?), charging/discharging (and its relation to nova's)
  • Various supernovae remnants:

IC 443, which is about 5,000 light years from Earth. Its called the "JellyFish Nebula". Note the expanding shell of plasma.

Simeis 147

In February 1987, light from the brightest stellar explosion seen in modern times reached Earth -- supernova SN 1987A.

"Seen towards the constellation Taurus it covers nearly 3 degrees (6 full moons) on the sky corresponding to a width of 150 light-years at the stellar debris cloud's estimated distance of 3,000 light-years."

(see previous)

"A time sequence of Hubble Space Telescope images, showing the collision of the expanding supernova remnant with a ring of dense material ejected by the progenitor star 20,000 years before the supernova." [3]

"This Hubble Space Telescope image from the sharp Advanced Camera for Surveys taken in November 2003 shows the explosion site over 16 years later. The snap shot indicates that the supernova blast wave continues to impact a pre-existing, one light-year wide ring of material, and the nascent central supernova remnant continues to expand. Like pearls on a cosmic necklace, bright hot spots produced as the blast wave heats material up to millions of degrees began to appear on the ring in the mid 1990s and have been followed across the spectrum by astronomers ever since. Supernova SN1987A lies in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a neighboring galaxy some 170,000 light-years away. That really does mean that the explosive event - the core collapse and detonation of a star about 20 times as massive as the Sun - occurred 170,000 years before February 1987"..."This supernova remnant has an apparent age of about 100,000 years - meaning light from the massive stellar explosion first reached Earth 100,000 years ago - but this expanding remnant is not the only aftermath. The cosmic catastrophe also left behind a spinning neutron star or pulsar, all that remains of the original star's core." [4]

  • Various pulsars:

"The Crab Pulsar, a city-sized, magnetized neutron star spinning 30 times a second, lies at the center of this composite image of the inner region of the well-known Crab Nebula. The spectacular picture combines optical data (red) from the Hubble Space Telescope and x-ray images (blue) from the Chandra Observatory, also used in the popular Crab Pulsar movies. Like a cosmic dynamo the pulsar powers the x-ray and optical emission from the nebula, accelerating charged particles and producing the eerie, glowing x-ray jets. Ring-like structures are x-ray emitting regions where the high energy particles slam into the nebular material. The innermost ring is about a light-year across. With more mass than the Sun and the density of an atomic nucleus, the spinning pulsar is the collapsed core of a massive star that exploded, while the nebula is the expanding remnant of the star's outer layers. The supernova explosion was witnessed in the year 1054." [5]

  • Various quasars:

(Planetary nebulae) "The spectrum of NGC 6302 (Distance: 3.4 ± 0.5 kly) shows its central star is one of the hottest objects in the galaxy, with a surface temperature in excess of 200,000 K" ... "The central star has never been observed and is surrounded by a particularly dense equatorial disc composed of gas and dust." (See also: Z-pinch)

(Nebulae) Part of the Veil Nebula or "Cygnus Loop" (Distance: ~2'000 ly).
"The Cygnus Loop has characteristics of an interstellar Birkeland current: A plasma medium, Filamentation, Braiding / twisted rope-like structure" [6]

[edit] Galaxy superclusters

(ordered by increasing distance to our galaxy)

See also: Observable universe, Galaxy groups and clusters

Panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky WayThe image is derived from the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog (XSC)—more than 1.5 million galaxies, and the Point Source Catalog (PSC)--nearly 0.5 billion Milky Way stars. The galaxies are color coded by 'redshift' obtained from the UGC, CfA, Tully NBGC, LCRS, 2dF, 6dFGS, and SDSS surveys (and from various observations compiled by the NASA Extragalactic Database), or photo-metrically deduced from the K band (2.2 um).Blue are the nearest sources (z < 0.01); green are at moderate distances (0.01 < z < 0.04) and red are the most distant sources that 2MASS resolves (0.04 < z < 0.1). The map is projected with an equal area Aitoff projection in the Galactic system (Milky Way at center)." [38]
Panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way

The image is derived from the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog (XSC)—more than 1.5 million galaxies, and the Point Source Catalog (PSC)--nearly 0.5 billion Milky Way stars. The galaxies are color coded by 'redshift' obtained from the UGC, CfA, Tully NBGC, LCRS, 2dF, 6dFGS, and SDSS surveys (and from various observations compiled by the NASA Extragalactic Database), or photo-metrically deduced from the K band (2.2 um).

Blue are the nearest sources (z < 0.01); green are at moderate distances (0.01 < z < 0.04) and red are the most distant sources that 2MASS resolves (0.04 < z < 0.1). The map is projected with an equal area Aitoff projection in the Galactic system (Milky Way at center)." [38]

[edit] Virgo (our home!)

  • "The Virgo Supercluster or Local Supercluster is the galactic supercluster that contains the Local Group, the latter containing, in its turn, the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies. The diameter of the Supercluster is about 200 million light years; it contains about 100 groups and clusters of galaxies and is dominated by the Virgo cluster near its center. Our Local Group is located near the edge and is being drawn inward toward the Virgo cluster. It is still unclear if at some time in the far future, the Local Group and other galactic clusters will be "eaten" by the very massive Virgo A Galaxy."

[edit] Hydra-Centaurus

  • "The Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, or the Hydra and Centaurus superclusters, is a supercluster in two parts and the closest neighbor of Milky Way's Virgo Supercluster. The cluster includes four large galaxy clusters in the Centaurus part (A3526 Centaurus cluster),A3565, A3574, A3581) and the proximate Hydra Cluster (A1060) and Norma cluster (A3627). Apart from the central clusters, which are 150 to 200 millions of light years away, several smaller clusters belong to the group."

[edit] Pavo-Indus

  • "The Pavo-Indus Supercluster is a neighboring supercluster to the Local Supercluster containing Local Group, a group of galaxies that contains our home galaxy, Milky Way galaxy. The Supercluster contains four main clusters, Abell 3656, Abell 3698, Abell 3742 and Abell 3747 according to Atlas of the universe web page."

[edit] Perseus-Pisces

  • "The Perseus-Pisces Supercluster is one of the largest known structures in the universe. Even at a distance of 250 million light-years, this chain of galaxy clusters extends more than 40° across the northern winter sky. The Perseus-Pisces supercluster is one of two dominant concentrations of galaxies in the nearby universe (within 300 million light years) which are placed on either side of the Local Supercluster and along the plane of our galaxy. The main clusters of the Perseus-Pisces Supercluster are Abell 262, Abell 347 and Abell 426"

[edit] Coma

  • "Coma Supercluster is a nearby supercluster of galaxies comprising the Coma Cluster (Abell 1656) and the Leo Cluster (Abell 1367). Located 300 million light-years from Earth, it is in the center of the Great Wall. The Coma Supercluster is the nearest massive cluster of galaxies to our own Virgo Supercluster. It is roughly spherical, about 20 million light-years in diameter and contains more than 3,000 galaxies."

[edit] Shapley

  • "Shapley Supercluster is the largest concentration of galaxies in our nearby Universe that forms a gravitationally interacting unit, thereby pulling itself together instead of expanding with the Universe. It appears as a striking overdensity in the distribution of galaxies in the constellation of Centaurus, approximately 650 million light years from the Milky way."

[edit] Horologium

  • "Horologium Supercluster is a massive supercluster, about 550 million light-years across and has a mass of 1017 solar masses. The nearest part of the supercluster is 700 million light-years away from us (mainly the clusters near the bottom of the picture) but the far end of it is 1.2 billion light-years (mainly the clusters at the top) in the constellations Horologium and Eridanus. The Horologium supercluster has about 5,000 galaxy groups (30,000 giant galaxies and 300,000 dwarf galaxies) and shows every galaxy brighter than magnitute 17."

[edit] Local Group galaxy group

This is our galaxy group within the Virgo galaxy supercluster.

  • "The Local Group is the group of galaxies that includes our galaxy, the Milky Way. The group comprises over 35 galaxies, with its gravitational center located somewhere between the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. The galaxies of the Local Group cover a 10 million light-year diameter" [51]

[edit] Milky Way galaxy

  • "Although the Milky Way is one of billions of galaxies in the observable universe, the Galaxy has special significance to humanity as it is the home galaxy of the planet Earth. The plane of the Milky Way galaxy is visible from Earth as a band of light in the night sky, and it is the appearance of this band of light which has inspired the name for our galaxy."
  • Data:
    • Diameter: 100,000 light years
    • Thickness: 12,000 light years (gas) / 1,000 light years (stars)
    • Number of stars: 200 to 400 billion

(infra-red spectrum image) [7]

[edit] Galactic Center

  • The Galactic Center is the rotational center of the Milky Way galaxy. It is located about 7.6 kiloparsecs (24,800 LY) away from the Earth, in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, where the Milky Way appears brightest.

(infra-red spectrum image) [8]

[edit] Stars closest to Earth

(ordered by distance from planet Earth)

[edit] Solar system

  • "The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun." [52]
  • "In broad terms, the charted regions of the Solar System consist of the Sun, four terrestrial inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars), an asteroid belt composed of small rocky bodies, four gas giant outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), and a second belt, the Kuiper Belt, composed of icy objects. Beyond the Kuiper belt is the scattered disc, the heliopause, and ultimately the hypothetical Oort cloud." [53]

[edit] Sun

  • Is the sun actually a ball of lightning? Problems with the current model of the sun as continuous fusion reaction, releasing energy from the core [54]:
    • Missing neutrinos:
    • Temperature of the halo-like corona is 300 times than that of the surface.
    • Rotates faster at equator, faster on surface.
    • Solar wind accelerates upon leaving the Sun.
    • Sunspots reveal cooler interior.
    • Sunspots travel faster than surrounding surface.
    • Sunspot penumbra (interior walls) reveal structured filaments.

[edit] Corona

[9]

Coronal mass ejection [10]

(see previous) [11]

Heliospheric current sheet - The solar electro-magnetic vortex.

Rising temperature from the photosphere (varying from 4.000 to 6.400 Kelvin, with a current average of about 5.800K), to the chromosphere (4.500 to as high as 20.000 Kelvin) to the corona (temperature from 1.000.000 up to 10.000.000 Kelvin).

[edit] Solar prominence

(todo)

Elements of the Sun's photosphere. [12]

[edit] Granules

(todo)

[edit] Spicules

Spicules

"Time-sequenced images have recently shown that spicules last about five minutes, starting out as tall tubes of rapidly rising gas but eventually fading as the gas peaks and falls back down to the Sun. These images also indicate, for the first time, that the ultimate cause of spicules is sound-like waves that flow over the Sun's surface but leak into the Sun's atmosphere." [13]

[edit] Sunspots

  • The sunspot can be divided into two parts:
    • The central umbra, which is the darkest part, where the magnetic field is approximately vertical.
    • The surrounding penumbra, which is lighter, where the magnetic field lines are more inclined.

Sunspot concepts:

[14]

[15]

[16]

Sunspot developments:

Sunspot index 1997-2008 [17]

2008-06-28-1600 (See also: [18])

[edit] Comets

Comet SWAN ("C/2006 M4")
"Displaying plasma effects. Ice and dust can not account for all observable evidence with comets, which in some cases includes X-Ray emission (clear evidence of electrical interaction taking place on the comet) [19]

Comet Holmes ("17P/Holmes")
"In only 42 hours in October 2007, the comet brightened from a magnitude of about 17 to about 2.8. This represents a change of brightness by a factor of about half a million and is the largest known outburst by a comet. No explanation has been provided by NASA or the mainstream as to why, let alone how, this has occured. As of November 9th 2007, the coma is now greater in diameter than the Sun, making it the largest body in the solar system (despite the actual comet being only 2km wide). The standard "dusty iceball" model of comets does not fit this picture. Only the electrical model can accomodate all observed evidence here." [20]

Comet Holmes as seen from San Francisco.

[edit] Planets and their Moons

(Ordered by increasing distance from the Sun)

[edit] Overviews

The 4 gas giants against the Sun: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

The 4 terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

Moons of our Solar system

Planets and Dwarf planets

[edit] Mercury

  • Symbol: ☿

[edit] Venus

[21]

"Computer generated 3-dimensional perspective view of the "crater farm" on Venus. The image was created by superimposing Magellan images in topography data, and coloring is based on Venera 13 and 14 Lander images." [22]

Venus transit across the Sun (June 8, 2004). [23]

(see previous)

  • Symbol: ♀

[edit] Earth

  • Symbol:⊕

[edit] Earth structure concepts

[edit] Expanding Earth theory
[edit] Earth's atmosphere
  • Troposphere: "lowest layer of the atmosphere; it begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator, with some variation due to weather factors. The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing due to solar heating at the surface."
    • Stratosphere: "from the troposphere's 7 to 17 km range to about 50 km. Temperature increases with height. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer,"
      • Mesosphere: "from about 50 km to the range of 80 to 85 km, temperature decreasing with height. This is also where most meteors burn up when entering the atmosphere."
        • Thermosphere: "from 80 – 85 km to 640+ km, temperature increasing with height.
          • Ionosphere: "the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation."
            • Exosphere: "from 500 – 1000 km up to 10,000 km, free-moving particles that may migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind."
[edit] Earth's magnetic field structures
  • Gravity (the equilibrium result of two(?) opposing - inward and outward pulling - forces)
[edit] Earth's magnetic field phenomena
  • Telluric current phenomena?:
    • "How is earth electrically neutral?": "Oh I think that Earth is neutral because we say so. To make clear what I mean, Earth is our reference point. The zero that we have made. It doesn't matter if other things charge it up. We just look at earth as zero and attribute the voltage to the other charged up thing. Essentially, voltage needs to be thought of a difference in potential. Difference between what and what. Between the earth and the point being measured. And earth is taken to be zero."
    • "The electric field intensity of Earth close to its surface is approximately 100 volts/meter. Air breaks down at 3000 kv/m. If the potential at infinity is taken equal to zero, the Earth’s potential is equal to 0.07 volt. In electrical engineering the potential of the Earth is assumed to be zero. The Earth’s capacitance is 700 micro farad."